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ETHICS
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Ethics is defined as the study of the moral value of human behavior. Ethics as a division of philosophy uses the methods of philosophy, not the methods of religion. In other words, it is not faith in the writings of religious figures which is used to develop ethical positions, it is the application of human reasoning to ethical issues.
The questions of ethics are many:
RESULTS-BASED ETHICS
How do you determine if a rule or act is morally right or wrong? This theory states that the moral goodness or badness is determined by the results or consequences of an act or rule. This theory is sometimes called "consequentialism" ; it is similar to some definitions of "teleological ethics". Telling a lie is morally wrong because of the damage this lie will cause; both to the liar and to society which depends on honest relationships.
One example of this theory is called "utilitarianism". It was started by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) an Englishman who, in trying to reform some of the unfair laws in England developed his theory that the morally correct rule was the one that provided the greatest good to the greatest number of people.
STANDARDS-BASED ETHICS
Under this theory you determine if an act or rule is morally right or wrong if it meets a moral standard. This is sometimes called the "deontological" theory or "duty ethics". One famous philosopher who developed such a theory was Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant was a German philosopher who developed a "universal test" to see if a rule could be a universal standard. If a rule can be made universal without contradiction, then it is morally good; if a rule cannot be made universal without contradiction, then it is morally bad. Not keeping your promise is morally wrong because you cannot make it a universal law that everyone can knowingly make promises with no intention of keeping them. Kant felt this was a contradiction in terms. When you say "I promise." while you are thinking you do not intend to keep your promise, you are contradicting yourself.
ETHICAL INTUITIONISM
Under this view an act or rule is determined to be right or wrong by appeal to the common intuition of a person. This intuition is sometimes referred to as your conscience. Anyone with a normal conscience will know that it is wrong to kill an innocent person.
ETHICAL EGOISM
This view is based on the theory that each person should do whatever promotes their own best interests; this becomes the basis for moral choices.
VIRTUE ETHICS
This is ethical theory that ethics should develop character traits or virtues in a person so that person will do what is morally right because they are a virtuous person. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was a famous exponent of this view. Aristotle felt that virtue ethics was the way to attain true happiness.
EMOTIVISM
This ethical theory is based on a study of the type of language used in ethical sentences and discussion. Notice, for example, how people get emotional about ethical issues. On this view ethical pronouncements are a type of language which attempts to evoke similar emotions in the hearer that the speaker has.
SUBDIVISIONS OF ETHICS
There are a number of specialties in ethics which deal with specific problem areas.
- Medical Ethics: This specialty, often called biomedical ethics, or bioethics, focuses on ethical issues that arise from the application of the biological and medical sciences.
- Business Ethics: There are a number of ethical issues and problems that are found in the workplace. Issues of honesty and equity are discussed here. There are internal ethical issues such as those that occur in the relationships between employers and employees. Then there are external ethical issues which concern the relationships between a company and the society of which it is a part.
- Environmental Ethics: This specialty deals with a cluster of problems that relate to the use of the environment. There are ethical issues involved in pollution and waste; and there are ethical issues involved in the conservation of natural resources for future use.
